Further,
“What does it take to be a leader?” There are
three things that characterize a leader. Leaders are
distinguished by their courage, their credibility,
and their convictions. Having the courage to
lead is perhaps the most important characteristic
of a true leader. Leadership is tough because leadership
is about change, either initiating change in an organization
or steering an organization in a changing, even chaotic
environment. Leaders sometimes meet with resistance
and must be able to stay the course in spite of obstacles
and disappointments. Leadership is ultimately about
courage and the will to press on in spite of challenges
and criticisms.
Leadership is also about convictions and having
the integrity to live by one’s convictions. Leaders
must have strong values and beliefs. They must be
able to demonstrate these values and convey them to
their followers.
Finally,
leadership is about credibility. Without followers,
there are no leaders. It is the leader’s credibility
that encourages others to join the quest, to move
toward the horizon, to achieve the organization’s
mission.
The
environment in which we lead has a significant impact
on how we go about leading and how we perceive our
leaders. Leaders are in the business of getting things
done in a world of chaos and change. We live in a
changing environment characterized by ambiguity and
lack of clarity. In fact, tolerance for ambiguity
and change is critical for both leaders and followers.
The future is uncharted territory that some have referred
to as a “wilderness.” The willingness to step out
in front, to be a pathfinder in the wilderness of
the future, distinguishes those who would lead from
those who would follow.
LEADERSHIP
THEORIES
Many
theories of leadership have been suggested and researched.
Early theories focused on the personal characteristics
and personality traits of leaders. It was believed
that leaders were born, not made. We have moved away
from that thinking and now see leadership as a set
of learned skills. We believe that leaders are made,
not born.
Other
leadership theories have focused on the behavior of
leaders. For example, leaders were compared based
on task-oriented behaviors and relationship-oriented
behaviors. Leadership styles were assessed based on
autocratic and participative approaches. Current thinking
favors relationship-oriented, participative approaches.
Leadership
has also been examined in terms of the power and influence
exercised by the leader. The sources of power and
how power is used have been examined to better understand
how individuals demonstrate leadership.
Additionally,
a number of situational contingency leadership theories
have been proposed. Some of these theories suggest
that leadership style should be adapted to the situation
and others suggest that leadership style should be
based on the characteristics of the followers.
Integrated
leadership approaches have also been studied. Leaders
have been examined in terms of their charisma, the
types of charisma and how charisma contributes to
various leadership styles. One theory categorizes
leaders as “transactional or transformational.” Transactional
leaders are those who reward others for their performance
and commitment to mission and transformational leaders
are those who inspire others to excel (Kouzes and
Posner, p. 321). Current thought about organizations
and leadership supports the transformational aspects
of leadership and views the leader as an agent of
change within the organization.
In
thinking about these various theories, one wonders
about the relationship between organizational theory
and leadership theory. As our understanding of organizations
has evolved, what influence has that had on leadership
theory? If we view organizations as systems subject
to the laws of science as suggested by Margaret Wheatley,
what type of leader is required? If we view organizations
as bureaucracies as suggested by Max Weber, what type
of leader is needed? Our understanding of human behavior,
changes in the way we work, and the changing context
of organizations, e.g., transition from an industrial
to a knowledge-based economy, all contribute to the
evolution of leadership theories. As our knowledge
of organizations and how we work evolves, our understanding
of leadership is likewise changed and influenced.
MY
LEADERSHIP THEORY
It
is within this context that my perspectives on leadership
have been developed. My thoughts on this are an amalgam
of what I have read, what I have experienced, and
the lessons that I have learned along the way. Due
to the complex nature of leadership and the number
of theories that have been suggested, it is important
that leaders and those who aspire to leadership develop
their own personal philosophy of leadership. My philosophy
of leadership as stated earlier includes six principles:
(1) focusing on mission and vision; (2) modeling values;
(3) shaping the organization’s culture; (4) taking
risks; (5) empowering others; and (6) understanding
oneself. My belief is that today’s organizations,
including those in the public sector, require leaders
that are more transformational than transactional.
The followers in today’s organizations are different
and therefore their leaders must also be different.
Focusing
on Mission and Vision
One
of the greatest challenges for a leader is to stay
on mission. People need to know where they are going
and what is expected of them if they are to follow.
Consistently focusing on the organization’s vision
and mission is a critical task for a leader.
The
leader starts by defining the vision and then keeping
it alive. The leader is ultimately responsible for
achieving the vision and must therefore communicate
the vision both within and outside of the organization.
In this sense, the leader serves as a conduit or bridge
between the organization and its environment. Beyond
communicating the vision, the leader must also be
able to inspire others to achieve the vision and to
believe that it can be achieved.
A
key aspect of the leader’s role in relation to vision
and mission is the ability to focus the organization’s
attention on the factors critical to its success.
The leader must be able to keep stated goals in front
of the organization and assist others in identifying
and reinforcing what is most important to the organization’s
success. Reducing the vision and mission to its essence
and consistently communicating this inside and outside
of the organization is the key role of the leader
related to vision and mission.
In
order to do this, the leader must set aside his or
her own agenda for that of the organization. While
they do not have to be the same, there must be congruence
between the leader’s personal mission and that of
the organization. This is where the “inner work” of
the leader becomes crucial. The leader must constantly
be in touch with his/her motivations. Followers will
sense when a personal agenda becomes more important
than the interests of the organization as a whole.
Finally,
the leader demonstrates his/her commitment to the
mission and vision by providing for a successor. For
some leaders this is very difficult. They may be so
focused on accomplishing the vision and goals that
they do not have time to contemplate a future in which
the organization will move forward without them. They
may not grasp their own organizational “mortality.”
Modeling
Values
Beyond
focusing on the mission and vision, a leader must
pay attention to the values by which one wants the
organization to operate. The leader is responsible
for developing and shaping the values that are most
important to the organization and to how it does business.
The organization’s values will be a reflection of
the individual leader’s values, so once again the
“inner work” of the leader is involved.
The
leader must convey the organization’s values, as well
as serve as a role model for the behaviors that reflect
the values within the context of the organization’s
day-to-day activities. One must inspire others to
adhere to the values and behave in ways that are consistent
with the espoused values.
In
order to do this a leader must have a moral compass
that helps one focus on “true north.” The importance
of the leader’s integrity cannot be overemphasized.
Credibility is earned and can be easily lost if the
leader does not behave in ways consistent with the
values that he or she seeks to inspire. Stephen Covey
(1992) refers to this as principle-centered leadership.
It is an important concept, particularly in light
of the dynamic environment in which organizations
operate today. Leaders need an effective moral capacity
by which to navigate the turbulent seas of organizational
life.
Shaping
the Organization’s Culture
Closely
related to defining and conveying the organization’s
values is the leader’s responsibility for shaping
and forming the organization’s culture. Schein (1992)
describes culture in terms of shared assumptions,
values and beliefs about a group or organization.
It is the leader’s responsibility to create and foster
a climate or environment in which others can be successful
and can achieve the organization’s vision and goals.
This means providing the tools and resources for achieving
the organization’s ends, as well as fostering a supportive
culture.
Proactively
shaping and defining the organization’s culture is
an activity that is often neglected by leaders. Due
to the pressures of balancing the other roles related
to leadership, the importance of the organization’s
culture in achieving the mission can be overlooked.
Schein (1992) asserts that “this ability to perceive
the limitations of one’s own culture and to develop
the culture adaptively is the essence and ultimate
challenge of leadership” (p. 2).
Conveying
values is part of, but not the same as, creating and
fostering organizational culture. If the leader focuses
on mission and conveys the values without paying attention
to the organization’s culture, the vision and goals
may not be achieved. Creating a culture in which people
know what is expected and can do their best work is
vital to the organization’s (and by extension the
leader’s) success. The organization’s culture should
not be left to chance. As Schein (1996) points out,
the leader is the animator, creator and sustainer
of culture.
Taking
Risks
Risk
taking embodies the fourth principle of my personal
philosophy of leadership. As mentioned before, this
may be the critical factor that distinguishes leaders
from followers. The courage to take risks, to step
out in front, to be the pathfinder is recognized by
the members of the organization and sets the leader
apart from the rest of the organization.
As
Kouzes and Posner (1995) point out, leaders must be
“pioneers.” They venture to the edge of the horizon
and report back about what they see. In this sense,
they are the scout or the point person for the organization.
Leaders
take risks for the sake of the mission and goals of
the organization. Some leaders are more comfortable
with this role than others and there are certainly
different degrees of risk associated with the decisions
that leaders must make. However, I would argue that
those who are “risk averse” cannot be leaders. Someone
who does not have the courage to take risks may hold
a position of leadership but cannot be a true leader.
They are instead more of a caretaker for their organization
than a leader.
Max
Depree (1997) refers to a conundrum related to risk.
Risking nothing may involve the greatest risk of all.
I agree with DePree. I believe that leaders must be
pathfinders rather than risking doing nothing at all.
Risk avoidance is surely a recipe for failure, not
only for the leader but for the organization as well.
Empowering
Others
The
fifth principle of my leadership philosophy relates
to the leader’s role in empowering others. Empowerment
involves conveying the mission and goals in such a
way that people can use their initiative and make
decisions on their own. It also involves creating
a culture in which initiative, risk taking, and learning
is valued.
One’s
beliefs and attitudes about people and their motivations
fosters empowerment. In order to trust others to act
in the best interests of the organization and its
mission, one must believe the best about people. Ascribing
to Deming’s view that problems are caused by organizational
systems and not people is helpful in empowering others.
Senge’s (1990) notion of the learning organization
in which a certain amount of error is acceptable as
long as it is used as an opportunity for organizational
learning also fits with empowering others to carry
out the organization’s mission and goals.
Paying
attention to relationships within the organization
and being able to balance individual needs and organizational
goals are important aspects of leadership. Leaders
may spend much of their time seeking win-win relationships
between the organization and its employees (collectively
and individually). Being inclusive and providing information
foster empowering others to act in the best interests
of the organization.
Clearly
a basic requirement for empowerment is establishing
trust between the leader and his or her followers.
Trust is the foundation of an effective organization
and is critical to leadership. In fact, one could
argue that leadership is not possible where there
is not trust. From this perspective, it is clear that
building a relationship of trust between the leader
and his followers is a crucial role of the leader.
Building
a team is also related to empowerment and establishing
trust. As Wilkes (1998) points out, effective leaders
take the time to understand the strengths and weaknesses
of those who follow them. They create an environment
in which the individual team members’ strengths can
be amplified and weaknesses minimized.
Without
building a team, a leader is limited in what he or
she can accomplish. Leaders can burn themselves out
and wear out their followers if they do not build
effective teams to help them reach the organization’s
goals. According to Wilkes (1998), “Good leaders mentor
and empower capable people to help them do the job”
(p. 235).
Understanding
Oneself
The
final principle of my personal leadership theory involves
the leader’s understanding of self. As suggested by
O’Neill (1993), leaders must know themselves and take
time for regular renewal in order to be effective
leaders. These periods of renewal allow leaders to
reflect on themselves and their organizations and
hopefully lead to new insights that will make them
better leaders.
Gaining
a better understanding of oneself also allows the
leader to become more comfortable with himself or
herself. Leaders must have a “thick skin” in order
to be comfortable with others’ responses to their
decisions. Having confidence in oneself can certainly
foster a higher degree of comfort with one’s decisions
and actions. This sense of confidence also contributes
to the leader’s credibility with his followers.
The
leader needs to read continually about leadership,
refine ideas and test new ways of leading. As with
other members of the organization, the leader needs
to be a lifelong learner. Given the dynamic environment
in which one must lead, being a student of oneself,
one’s organization, and one’s environment is essential.
It is important that one create and protect time for
reflection and learning.
CONCLUSION
Beyond
the six principles of leadership previously discussed,
there are some personal characteristics that I believe
distinguish successful leaders. Leaders must have
the desire and the will to lead, which requires confidence
and courage. The desire to make a difference is what
ultimately sets leaders apart from their followers.
Leaders
must also have credibility and be able to build trust
among their followers. Without that relationship of
trust, leadership cannot exist. Once attained, leaders
must carefully guard their credibility in order to
continue to be effective leaders. Living by one’s
convictions and personal values can help establish
credibility with one’s followers.
Finally,
leaders must be able to inspire hope in their followers.
Challenges and setbacks must be overcome. Problems
must be resolved. Mountains must be climbed, so to
speak, so that the horizon is once more in view. Inspiring
hope and envisioning a better future is ultimately
what leadership is about.
REFERENCES
Covey,
S. (1992). Principle-centered leadership. New
York, NY: Simon and Schuster.
DePree,
M. (1997). Leading without power. San Francisco,
CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Kouzes,
J. M. & Posner, B. Z. (1995). The leadership
challenge: How to keep getting extraordinary things
done in organizations. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass
Publishers.
O’Neill,
J. R. ( 1993). The paradox of success: When winning
at work means losing at life. New York, NY: Penguin
Putnam, Inc.
Schein,
E. H. (1992). Organizational culture and leadership
(2nd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass
Publishers.
Schein,
E. H. (1996). Leadership and organizational culture.
In F. Hesselbein, M. Goldsmith, & R. Beckhard
(Eds.), The leader of the future: New visions,
strategies and practices for the next era (pp.
59-69). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, Inc.
Senge,
P. M. (1990). The fifth discipline: The art and
practice of the learning organization. New York,
NY: Doubleday/Currency.
Wilkes,
C. G. (1998). Jesus on leadership: Discovering
the secrets of servant leadership from the life of
Christ. Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House Publishers,
Inc.
ABOUT
THE AUTHOR
Nancy
P. Pursley, MPA, DHA, is Associate Director of the
Institute for Public Service and Policy Research.
Dr. Pursley joined the Institute in 1990 and served
as Senior Public Service Associate in the Center for
Governance and Assistant Director of the Center for
Health Services and Policy Research prior to her appointment
as Associate Director. Dr. Pursley worked in several
health and human service related state agencies before
coming to the University of South Carolina. She holds
a BA from Columbia College, a Master of Public Administration
and Graduate Certificate in Gerontology from the University
of South Carolina, and a Doctor of Health Administration
from the Medical University of South Carolina. Dr.
Pursley’s areas of interest include organizational
culture, organizational development, quality improvement,
and health policy. Dr. Pursley can be contacted at
pursleynp@sc.edu.
